Alosa sapidissima

Body fusi form, moderately compressed, body depth moderately variable and in- creasing with size; scutes on abdomen forming distinct keel. Upper jaw with distinct median notch; lower jaw not rising steeply within mouth; teeth absent in jaws (minute in juveniles to 15 cm st andard length); no teeth on vomer. Gill rakers slender and numerous, 59 to 71 on lower limb of anterior gill arch (fewer in young). Dorsal fin placed slightly anterior to centre point of body; anal fin short and placed well posterior to ver- tical through posterior dorsal-fin base; 8 branched pelvic-fin rays, pelvic-fin origin at vertical through about centre point of dorsal-fin base. Colour: dorsum bluish green with met allic luster, gradu ally shading to silver on sides; dark spot on shoulder, sometimes followed by several more spots, or even a second row, along sides; fins pale green, caudal tips sometimes dusky.

Body shape: fusiform / normal. Moderately compressed, belly with a distinct keel. Lower jaw not rising steeply within mouth. Gill rakers long and slender (fewer in young). Silvery in color with blue or blue-green metallic luster on back (Ref. 1998). A dark spot on shoulder, sometimes followed by several more, or even a second row. Resembles A. pseudoharengus with lower jaw rising steeply within mouth, eyes larger, and fewer lower gill rakers, as also A. aestivalis and A. mediocris (Ref. 188). Silvery, with a green or bluish back (Ref. 7251). Branchiostegal rays 7 (Ref. 4639). Striking features: none.

Western North Atlantic (central Florida northward to Gulf of St. Lawrence and Nova Scotia); also in rivers and streams. Intro- ductions in Gulf of Mexico appear to have failed, but attempts on the Pacific coasts of North Amer- ica and Russia succeeded; Pacific distri bution from Baja, Cali fornia north to British Colombia, also Kamchatka. Brevoortia patronus Goode, 1878 MHG Frequent synonyms / misidentifications: None / None. FAO names: En - Gulf menhaden; Fr - Menhaden écailleux; Sp - Lacha escamuda. Diagnostic characters: Body compressed, fairly deep, head moderately large; abdomen with 29 to 31 scutes forming distinct keel; double line of modified predorsal scales; copious body mucus. Upper jaw with dis- tinct median notch, no teeth. Gill rakers very fine and numerous. Dorsal-fin origin at about midpoint of body; anal fin fairly short, beginning slightly posterior to vertical through dorsal-fin base; 6 branched pelvic-fin rays, posterior margin of pelvic fin rounded, inner rays about as long as outer rays; pelvic-fin base at vertical through anterior dorsal-fin base. Scales in lateral series 42 to 48, large, those on dorsum and above anal-fin base only slightly sm aller and more irregular than rest; exposed part narrow, their posterior edges pectinated with sharp points. Colour: dorsum bluish grey, sides brassy green; large dark spot on side posterior to gill c over, often followed by series (r arely 2) of sm aller spots (ei ther round or vertic ally elon- gate); fins yellow-green, a dusky margin on caudal fin. Size: Maximum 27 cm st andard length, commonly to 20 cm st andard length. Habitat, biology, and fisheries: Marine, pelagic, usu ally in sh allow waters, but caught down to at least 60 m; forms very large schools. In Mississippi delta region adults begin to migrate offshore in October and remain in deeper waters throughout winter. Spawns from October to March from near shore to about 97 km offshore, at depths of 2 to 111 m; multiple spawns per season; nursery areas in estuaries. Estimated batch fecundity 37 000 to 151 000 eggs/female. Eggs opaque, 1.04 to 1.30 mm. Mature at age 1 (greater than 14 cm fork length). Eggs hatch at sea; larvae are carried to estuaries by ocean currents where they develop into juveniles. Juveniles migrate offshore during winter and move back to coastal waters the following spring as age-1 adults. Filter-feeds on plankton at the surface, but probably also feeds at or near the bottom. Probably contri butes the major part of the Gulf of Mexico menhaden catches. Commercial catches are mostly in salinities of 5 to 24‰, but also in fully salt water and up to 60‰ in the hypersaline Laguna Madre, Texas, and down to 0.1‰ in Gr and Lake, Louisiana. Fished throughout its range, but especi ally off Louisiana (USA); fishing season mid-April to mid-October. The most important fishery resource in the area in terms of total l and- ings with 492 and 649 thous and t l anded annu ally between 1996 and 2000 which accounted for be- tween 29 and 39% of total reported l andings. Caught with purse seines, gill nets, also with trawls. Marketed fresh, salted, and canned, the flesh not being gener ally esteemed (very oily and bony); chiefly used as a source of fish oil, also as fish meal. Distri bution: Gulf of Mexico (Florida Bay to Gulf of Campeche, Mexico). Brevoortia smithi Hildebr and, 1941 MHT Frequent synonyms / misidentifications: None / None. FAO names: En - Yellowfin menhaden; Fr - Menhaden jaune; Sp - Lacha amarilla. Diagnostic characters: Body compressed, fairly deep, head quite large; abdomen with 30 to 32 scutes forming a distinct keel; double line of modified predorsal scales; little body mucus. Upper jaw with distinct median notch, no teeth. Gill rakers very fine and numerous. Dorsal fin at about midpoint of body; anal fin fairly short, anal-fin origin slightly posterior to vertical through posterior dorsal-fin base; tip of pectoral fin extend- ing to within 3 to 5 scales of pelvic-fin base; 6 branched pelvic-fin rays; posterior margin of pelvic fin oblique and almost straight, inner and middle rays markedly shorter than outer rays; pelvic-fin base at or anterior to vertical through dorsal-fin origin. Scales in lateral series 54 to 80 (usu ally about 60 to 70), sm all and numerous, those on dorsum and above anal fin markedly sm aller than rest; exposed part narrow, their posterior edges pectinate with blunt points. Colour: dorsum green-blue, sides silvery; large dark spot on side posterior to gill c over, but not followed by series of sm aller spots; fins golden yellow. Size: Maximum 33 cm st andard length, commonly to 25 cm st andard length. Habitat, biology, and fisheries: Marine, pelagic, inshore, especi ally in bays and estuaries, also entering brackish and fresh waters; shoaling where common. Spawning and nursery areas not known in the Gulf; spawns in winter (eggs and larvae in plankton be- ginning in November), February and March in the Indian River (Atlantic coast of Florida). Eggs 1.21 to 1.48 mm in diameter. Filter-feeds on plankton at the surface. Not of much importance to fisher- ies; separate statistics not reported for this spe- cies; frequently caught with o ther Brevoortia species. Caught with drag nets and seines. Mar- keted mainly fresh, its flesh claimed to be more palatable and less oily than that of B. tyrannus. Distri bution: Atlantic coast (Beau fort, North Carolina, to Indian River, Florida); Gulf of Mexico (Florida Bay to Louisiana, with a possible break between Biscayne Bay and Florida Bay).

Coastal, pelagic, euryhaline, entering brackish and fresh waters; in the sea, to depths of about 100 m. Schooling; anadromous, strongly migratory; ascending rivers (up to 500 km upriver) to spawn; appears off Florida coast as early as November, off Carolina coast in February and March, and fur- ther north in April, May, or June, depending on water temperature (peak runs at about 18.5(cid:1)C); spent fish die or return to the sea shortly after spawning; young fry descend in autumn. Spawns at 5 years, sometimes 4, appar- ently in their home rivers, on s andy or pebbly substrate in the evening. Semelparous (die after spawning) south of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina; increasingly iteroparous (individuals survive and return to sea) north of this region. Estimated fecundity 600 000 eggs/female. Eggs transp arent, pink, or amber, semi-buoyant, 2.5 to 3.5 mm (fertilized). Vertical migrator; follows movement of prey; primarily plankton feeders; takes mainly copepods and mysids, also algae, fish eggs, and occasion ally sm all fishes (e.g., smelt, s and lance); no feed- ing during migration up rivers; juveniles feed on copepods and insect larvae in rivers. Princip ally caught in rivers, especi ally northward of the area. Caught mainly with pound nets, gill nets, and seines, but also with fyke nets, otter trawls, purse seines, traps, and dip nets; also caught in rivers as a sportfish with hook-and-line, using flies or sm all artificial lures.

Maximum 60 cm st andard length, commonly to 50 cm st andard length.

Spends most of its life at sea, returning to freshwater streams to breed (Ref. 27547). Inhabits open water of large rivers (Ref. 86798). Non-spawning adults are found in schools near the surface of continental shelf waters in spring, summer and fall (Ref. 7135); also found in brackish waters (Ref. 4607). Newly hatched larvae are found in rivers during the summer; by autumn they enter the sea and remain there until maturity. Juveniles form schools at 20-30 mm TL and gradually move downstream (Ref. 4639). Feeds on plankton, mainly copepods and mysids, occasionally on small fishes. Feeding ceases during upstream spawning migration and resumes during the downstream post-spawning migration (Ref. 1998). Commercially caught in rivers and estuaries during spawning migration (Ref. 1998). Utilized fresh, salted, or smoked. The roe is esteemed. Eaten pan-fried, broiled, and baked (Ref. 9988). Possibly to 375 m depth (Ref. 6793). Parasites found are nematodes, Acanthocephala, copepods and distomes (Ref. 37032).

Reproductive mode: dioecism; fertilization: external; nonguarders (open water/substratum egg scatterers); parental care: none. Some shad spawn immediately on entering fresh water while others may undertake fairly long journeys, as much as 630 km upstream, to their favored spawning grounds (Ref. 4607). Enters rivers as early as November (Florida) and as late as May or June in the north, depending on water temperature (peak runs at about 18.5 °C). Spawning occurs at sundown and continues until after midnight. The fish pair and swim close together, releasing eggs and milt (Ref. 27547). Adults descend shortly after spawning, the young in the autumn. Spawning reported from 8-26°C, generally occurs at 12-21°C (Ref. 38954).

IUCN Red List Status: Least Concern (LC), assessed 2018-08-22. Resilience: Low (K=0.14; tm=4.7).